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      expert oracle database architecture
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      Contents at a Glance.................................................................................................v
      Foreword ............................................................................................................. xviii
      Foreword from the First Edition ............................................................................ xix
      About the Author .................................................................................................. xxii
      About the Technical Reviewers ........................................................................... xxiii
      Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... xxiv
      Introduction .......................................................................................................... xxv
      Setting Up Your Environment ............................................................................. xxxii
      ■ Chapter 1: Developing Successful Oracle Applications .......................................1
      My Approach....................................................................................................................2
      The Black Box Approach..................................................................................................3
      How (and How Not) to Develop Database Applications .................................................11
      Understanding Oracle Architecture ......................................................................................................12
      Understanding Concurrency Control.....................................................................................................21
      Multi-Versioning ...................................................................................................................................25
      Database Independence? .....................................................................................................................32
      How Do I Make It Run Faster? ..............................................................................................................46
      The DBA-Developer Relationship..........................................................................................................48
      Summary .......................................................................................................................49
      ■ CONTENTS
      vii
      ■ Chapter 2: Architecture Overview......................................................................51
      Defining Database and Instance....................................................................................52
      The SGA and Background Processes....................................................................................................58
      Connecting to Oracle .....................................................................................................60
      Dedicated Server ..................................................................................................................................60
      Shared Server.......................................................................................................................................62
      Mechanics of Connecting over TCP/IP..................................................................................................63
      Summary .......................................................................................................................66
      ■ Chapter 3: Files ..................................................................................................67
      Parameter Files..............................................................................................................68
      What Are Parameters?..........................................................................................................................69
      Legacy init.ora Parameter Files............................................................................................................73
      Server Parameter Files (SPFILEs) ..................................................................................74
      Converting to SPFILEs ..........................................................................................................................75
      Trace Files .....................................................................................................................82
      Requested Trace Files ..........................................................................................................................83
      Trace Files Generated in Response to Internal Errors ..........................................................................88
      Trace File Wrap-up ...............................................................................................................................93
      Alert File ........................................................................................................................93
      Data Files.......................................................................................................................96
      A Brief Review of File System Mechanisms .........................................................................................96
      The Storage Hierarchy in an Oracle Database......................................................................................97
      Dictionary-Managed and Locally-Managed Tablespaces...................................................................101
      Temp Files ...................................................................................................................103
      Control Files.................................................................................................................105
      Redo Log Files .............................................................................................................105
      Online Redo Log..................................................................................................................................106
      Archived Redo Log..............................................................................................................................108
      Password Files.............................................................................................................109
      ■ CONTENTS
      viii
      Change Tracking File ...................................................................................................113
      Flashback Logs............................................................................................................114
      Flashback Database ...........................................................................................................................114
      Flash Recovery Area...........................................................................................................................115
      DMP Files (EXP/IMP Files)............................................................................................116
      Data Pump Files...........................................................................................................117
      Flat Files ......................................................................................................................120
      Summary .....................................................................................................................120
      ■ Chapter 4: Memory Structures.........................................................................121
      The Process Global Area and User Global Area ...........................................................122
      Manual PGA Memory Management ....................................................................................................123
      Automatic PGA Memory Management................................................................................................129
      Choosing Between Manual and Auto Memory Management..............................................................140
      PGA and UGA Wrap-up........................................................................................................................142
      The System Global Area...............................................................................................142
      Fixed SGA ...........................................................................................................................................148
      Redo Buffer.........................................................................................................................................148
      Block Buffer Cache .............................................................................................................................149
      Shared Pool ........................................................................................................................................156
      Large Pool...........................................................................................................................................159
      Java Pool ............................................................................................................................................160
      Streams Pool ......................................................................................................................................160
      Automatic SGA Memory Management................................................................................................161
      Automatic Memory Management .......................................................................................................162
      Summary .....................................................................................................................164
      ■ Chapter 5: Oracle Processes............................................................................165
      Server Processes.........................................................................................................166
      Dedicated Server Connections ...........................................................................................................166
      Shared Server Connections ................................................................................................................169
      ■ CONTENTS
      ix
      Database Resident Connection Pooling (DRCP) ..................................................................................170
      Connections vs. Sessions ...................................................................................................................170
      Dedicated Server vs. Shared Server vs. DRCP ...................................................................................176
      Dedicated/Shared Server Wrap-up.....................................................................................................179
      Background Processes ................................................................................................180
      Focused Background Processes.........................................................................................................181
      Utility Background Processes.............................................................................................................190
      Slave Processes...........................................................................................................193
      I/O Slaves............................................................................................................................................193
      Pnnn: Parallel Query Execution Servers .............................................................................................193
      Summary .....................................................................................................................194
      ■ Chapter 6: Locking and Latching .....................................................................195
      What Are Locks?..........................................................................................................195
      Locking Issues .............................................................................................................198
      Lost Updates.......................................................................................................................................198
      Pessimistic Locking............................................................................................................................199
      Optimistic Locking ..............................................................................................................................201
      Optimistic or Pessimistic Locking?.....................................................................................................207
      Blocking..............................................................................................................................................208
      Deadlocks...........................................................................................................................................211
      Lock Escalation...................................................................................................................................215
      Lock Types...................................................................................................................216
      DML Locks ..........................................................................................................................................216
      DDL Locks...........................................................................................................................................225
      Latches ...............................................................................................................................................230
      Mutexes ..............................................................................................................................................240
      Manual Locking and User-Defined Locks ...........................................................................................240
      Summary .....................................................................................................................241
      ■ CONTENTS
      x
      ■ Chapter 7: Concurrency and Multi-versioning.................................................243
      What Are Concurrency Controls?.................................................................................243
      Transaction Isolation Levels ........................................................................................244
      READ UNCOMMITTED..........................................................................................................................246
      READ COMMITTED ..............................................................................................................................248
      REPEATABLE READ .............................................................................................................................249
      SERIALIZABLE .....................................................................................................................................252
      READ ONLY .........................................................................................................................................254
      Implications of Multi-version Read Consistency..........................................................255
      A Common Data Warehousing Technique That Fails..........................................................................255
      An Explanation for Higher Than Expected I/O on Hot Tables ..............................................................256
      Write Consistency ........................................................................................................259
      Consistent Reads and Current Reads .................................................................................................259
      Seeing a Restart .................................................................................................................................262
      Why Is a Restart Important to Us? ......................................................................................................264
      Summary .....................................................................................................................265
      ■ Chapter 8: Transactions...................................................................................267
      Transaction Control Statements ..................................................................................267
      Atomicity......................................................................................................................269
      Statement-Level Atomicity .................................................................................................................269
      Procedure-Level Atomicity .................................................................................................................271
      Transaction-Level Atomicity ...............................................................................................................275
      DDL and Atomicity ..............................................................................................................................275
      Durability .....................................................................................................................275
      WRITE Extensions to COMMIT.............................................................................................................276
      COMMITS in a Non-Distributed PL/SQL Block ....................................................................................277
      Integrity Constraints and Transactions........................................................................279
      IMMEDIATE Constraints ......................................................................................................................279
      DEFERRABLE Constraints and Cascading Updates.............................................................................280
      ■ CONTENTS
      xi
      Bad Transaction Habits................................................................................................284
      Committing in a Loop .........................................................................................................................284
      Using Autocommit ..............................................................................................................................290
      Distributed Transactions..............................................................................................291
      Autonomous Transactions ...........................................................................................293
      How Autonomous Transactions Work.................................................................................................293
      When to Use Autonomous Transactions .............................................................................................295
      Summary .....................................................................................................................298
      ■ Chapter 9: Redo and Undo................................................................................299
      What Is Redo?..............................................................................................................300
      What Is Undo?..............................................................................................................300
      How Redo and Undo Work Together............................................................................304
      Example INSERT-UPDATE-DELETE Scenario ......................................................................................304
      Commit and Rollback Processing ................................................................................308
      What Does a COMMIT Do? ..................................................................................................................308
      What Does a ROLLBACK Do? ..............................................................................................................315
      Investigating Redo .......................................................................................................316
      Measuring Redo..................................................................................................................................316
      Can I Turn Off Redo Log Generation? .................................................................................................318
      Why Can’t I Allocate a New Log?........................................................................................................321
      Block Cleanout....................................................................................................................................323
      Log Contention....................................................................................................................................326
      Temporary Tables and Redo/Undo .....................................................................................................328
      Investigating Undo .......................................................................................................332
      What Generates the Most and Least Undo? .......................................................................................332
      ORA-01555: snapshot too old Error ....................................................................................................334
      Summary .....................................................................................................................344
      ■ CONTENTS
      xii
      ■ Chapter 10: Database Tables ...........................................................................345
      Types of Tables............................................................................................................345
      Terminology.................................................................................................................347
      Segment .............................................................................................................................................347
      Segment Space Management ............................................................................................................350
      High-water Mark ................................................................................................................................350
      FREELISTS ..........................................................................................................................................352
      PCTFREE and PCTUSED ......................................................................................................................356
      LOGGING and NOLOGGING ..................................................................................................................359
      INITRANS and MAXTRANS ..................................................................................................................359
      Heap Organized Tables................................................................................................359
      Index Organized Tables ...............................................................................................363
      Index Organized Tables Wrap-up .......................................................................................................378
      Index Clustered Tables ................................................................................................378
      Index Clustered Tables Wrap-up ........................................................................................................386
      Hash Clustered Tables .................................................................................................386
      Hash Clustered Tables Wrap-up .........................................................................................................394
      Sorted Hash Clustered Tables .....................................................................................395
      Nested Tables ..............................................................................................................397
      Nested Tables Syntax .........................................................................................................................398
      Nested Table Storage .........................................................................................................................405
      Nested Tables Wrap-up ......................................................................................................................408
      Temporary Tables ........................................................................................................409
      Temporary Tables Wrap-up ................................................................................................................415
      Object Tables ...............................................................................................................416
      Object Tables Wrap-up .......................................................................................................................423
      Summary .....................................................................................................................423
      ■ CONTENTS
      xiii
      ■ Chapter 11: Indexes .........................................................................................425
      An Overview of Oracle Indexes ....................................................................................425
      B*Tree Indexes ............................................................................................................427
      Index Key Compression ......................................................................................................................430
      Reverse Key Indexes ..........................................................................................................................433
      Descending Indexes ...........................................................................................................................439
      When Should You Use a B*Tree Index? ..............................................................................................441
      B*Trees Wrap-up ................................................................................................................................452
      Bitmap Indexes ............................................................................................................452
      When Should You Use a Bitmap Index?..............................................................................................453
      Bitmap Join Indexes ...........................................................................................................................457
      Bitmap Indexes Wrap-up ....................................................................................................................459
      Function-Based Indexes ..............................................................................................460
      Important Implementation Details ......................................................................................................460
      A Simple Function-Based Index Example ...........................................................................................461
      Indexing Only Some of the Rows........................................................................................................470
      Implementing Selective Uniqueness ..................................................................................................472
      Caveat Regarding ORA-01743 ............................................................................................................472
      Function-Based Indexes Wrap-up ......................................................................................................473
      Application Domain Indexes ........................................................................................474
      Frequently Asked Questions and Myths About Indexes...............................................475
      Do Indexes Work on Views? ...............................................................................................................475
      Do Nulls and Indexes Work Together?................................................................................................475
      Should Foreign Keys Be Indexed? ......................................................................................................477
      Why Isn’t My Index Getting Used? ......................................................................................................479
      Myth: Space Is Never Reused in an Index ..........................................................................................485
      Myth: Most Discriminating Elements Should Be First ........................................................................488
      Summary .....................................................................................................................491
      ■ CONTENTS
      xiv
      ■ Chapter 12: Datatypes......................................................................................493
      An Overview of Oracle Datatypes ................................................................................493
      Character and Binary String Types ..............................................................................496
      NLS Overview .....................................................................................................................................496
      Character Strings................................................................................................................................499
      Binary Strings: RAW Types ..........................................................................................506
      Number Types..............................................................................................................508
      NUMBER Type Syntax and Usage .......................................................................................................510
      BINARY_FLOAT/BINARY_DOUBLE Type Syntax and Usage.................................................................513
      Non-native Number Types..................................................................................................................514
      Performance Considerations ..............................................................................................................514
      Long Types ..................................................................................................................516
      Restrictions on LONG and LONG RAW Types ......................................................................................516
      Coping with Legacy LONG Types ........................................................................................................518
      Dates, Timestamps, and Interval Types.......................................................................523
      Formats ..............................................................................................................................................523
      DATE Type ..........................................................................................................................................525
      TIMESTAMP Type................................................................................................................................531
      INTERVAL Type ...................................................................................................................................538
      LOB Types....................................................................................................................541
      Internal LOBs ......................................................................................................................................541
      BFILEs.................................................................................................................................................552
      ROWID/UROWID Types .................................................................................................554
      Summary .....................................................................................................................555
      ■ Chapter 13: Partitioning...................................................................................557
      Partitioning Overview ..................................................................................................557
      Increased Availability .........................................................................................................................558
      Reduced Administrative Burden .........................................................................................................560
      Enhanced Statement Performance.....................................................................................................564
      ■ CONTENTS
      xv
      Table Partitioning Schemes.........................................................................................566
      Range Partitioning ..............................................................................................................................567
      Hash Partitioning ................................................................................................................................569
      List Partitioning ..................................................................................................................................574
      Interval Partitioning ............................................................................................................................575
      Reference Partitioning........................................................................................................................581
      Composite Partitioning .......................................................................................................................586
      Row Movement...................................................................................................................................588
      Table Partitioning Schemes Wrap-up.................................................................................................590
      Partitioning Indexes .....................................................................................................591
      Local Indexes vs. Global Indexes........................................................................................................592
      Local Indexes......................................................................................................................................593
      Global Indexes ....................................................................................................................................599
      Partitioning and Performance, Revisited .....................................................................612
      Auditing and Segment Space Compression.................................................................618
      Summary .....................................................................................................................619
      ■ Chapter 14: Parallel Execution.........................................................................621
      When to Use Parallel Execution ...................................................................................622
      A Parallel Processing Analogy ............................................................................................................623
      Oracle Exadata.............................................................................................................624
      Parallel Query ..............................................................................................................624
      Parallel DML.................................................................................................................630
      Parallel DDL .................................................................................................................633
      Parallel DDL and Data Loading Using External Tables........................................................................634
      Parallel DDL and Extent Trimming......................................................................................................636
      Parallel Recovery .........................................................................................................645
      Procedural Parallelism.................................................................................................645
      Parallel Pipelined Functions ...............................................................................................................646
      Do-It-Yourself Parallelism ..................................................................................................................649
      ■ CONTENTS
      xvi
      Old School Do-It-Yourself Parallelism ................................................................................................652
      Summary .....................................................................................................................656
      ■ Chapter 15: Data Loading and Unloading.........................................................657
      SQL*Loader..................................................................................................................657
      Loading Data with SQLLDR FAQs........................................................................................................661
      SQLLDR Caveats .................................................................................................................................686
      SQLLDR Summary ..............................................................................................................................686
      External Tables ............................................................................................................686
      Setting Up External Tables .................................................................................................................687
      Dealing with Errors .............................................................................................................................693
      Using an External Table to Load Different Files..................................................................................696
      Multiuser Issues .................................................................................................................................696
      External Tables Summary...................................................................................................................697
      Flat File Unload ............................................................................................................698
      Data Pump Unload .......................................................................................................706
      Summary .....................................................................................................................708
      ■ Chapter 16: Data Encryption ............................................................................709
      Types of Encryption .....................................................................................................709
      Data in Motion ....................................................................................................................................709
      Data at Rest ........................................................................................................................................710
      Manual Application Encryption ...........................................................................................................713
      The Oracle Wallet ...............................................................................................................................714
      Transparent Column Level Encryption................................................................................................717
      Transparent Tablespace Encryption ...................................................................................................719
      What Encryption Is Not About ......................................................................................722
      Implementing Manual Application Encryption .............................................................723
      Reasons to Avoid the Manual Approach .............................................................................................723
      Performance Implications of the Manual Approach ...........................................................................724
      When to Use the Manual Approach ....................................................................................................729
      ■ CONTENTS
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